The Ultimate Guide to Hot Peppers

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Beads of sweat grace your forehead as your mouth begins to tingle and burn. Your heart races and dizziness sweeps over you. No, we’re not talking about a heart attack. We’re talking about the exhilarating experience of eating hot peppers. So why do we love putting ourselves through this?

Hot peppers add a unique vibrancy and spice that elevates the flavor profile of a dish. They provide both color and heat, creating an exciting culinary experience that can sometimes even send you running for a gallon of milk to cool the burn (we’re looking at you, ghost chilies). This excitement and challenge make hot peppers a favorite for those looking to add a fiery kick to their meals.

However, it can be challenging to find the right amount of heat for a specific dish when working with hot peppers, especially because everyone has a different tolerance for spicy foods. In this article, we’ll explore the history, science, and culinary uses of hot peppers, along with tips for cooking with them safely and effectively.

A Fiery Journey: The History and Origin of Hot Peppers

Hot peppers were long-believed to have been native to Central and South America and then spread throughout the world by traders and explorers. However, scientists in Colorado have recently discovered evidence that chili peppers were in fact in North America as far back as 50 million years ago, believed to have been brought over by birds.

Regardless of the exact origins, various peppers have become a major part of international cuisines. For instance, Mexico’s salsa and mole sauces, Thailand’s spicy curries, India’s vindaloo, Korea’s gochujang, and China’s Sichuan dishes all prominently feature hot peppers. In the United States, Texas stands out as a hub for popular peppers such as cayenne, jalapeno, chipotle, and habanero, which are integral to the region’s culinary identity.

While peppers are often referred to as a vegetable, they’re technically a fruit. Fruits typically contain seeds, whereas vegetables can consist of roots, stems, and leaves. However, while that might be scientifically true, in the culinary world, fruits and vegetables are generally grouped by taste and use, putting peppers with vegetables. Fruits are sweeter and typically used in desserts, while vegetables are generally used in side dishes and main courses.

The Heat Behind the Heat: What Makes Hot Peppers Hot?

Next time your mouth is burning after eating a hot pepper, you can thank the capsaicin found in the pepper for the experience. When you eat a hot pepper, capsaicin, an oil-like compound found in a Capsicum, or pepper plant, triggers a message to your brain. The message isn’t that “the food is spicy” though, instead it’s sending a message that heat is present.

That’s right, capsaicin tricks your brain into thinking that the temperature in your mouth is increasing, even though it’s not. Specifically, it activates the same receptors in your body responsible for pain signaling (TRPV1 receptors, if you’re keeping score at home). This can lead to the natural response of wanting to get a drink to help flush the irritant out of your system. But because of the chemical makeup of capsaicin, you want to be cautious of what you drink to ease the burn. Water can spread the heat, making it feel worse, whereas milk or a sugary beverage may help ease the pain by washing the capsaicin away. However, while the fat in some non-dairy milks can help ease the pain when compared to water, a better option to ease the burn is animal milk due to a protein in the milk called casein.

While we use the heat from capsaicin to spice up our foods, it also serves an important role as a defense mechanism in nature. Not only does it allow the plants time to reproduce by protecting them from insects, fungi, and animals, but it also serves as the active ingredient in pepper spray.

While it was previously believed that the seeds were the hottest part of a pepper, it’s actually the pith or white part that holds the seeds. This means you can ensure a milder overall flavor by gutting the pepper to remove the seeds and pith. It’s also believed by eating hot foods regularly, you can desensitize your pain receptors so you can eat increasingly hotter food.

The white part that holds the seeds is the hottest part of a pepper.

How Hot Is It? How the Scoville Scale Rates the Heat of Peppers

The standard measurement for the heat of chili peppers is based on the Scoville Scale. Wilbur Scoville developed the Scoville Organoleptic Test in 1912 to provide heat ratings known as Scoville heat units (SHU), which range from 0 to 16 million (pure capsaicin).

Bell peppers are on the mild end of this spectrum, coming in at a whopping zero heat units. These are your classic green, yellow, orange, and red peppers found at any supermarket or grocery outlet.

Though many peppers and hot sauces have been modified to provide more heat, most peppers are well under a million SHU. Habanero peppers, for example, only average 100,000 – 350,000 SHU.

Originally, the SHU rating was determined by how much sugar water was needed to make the heat of the pepper untraceable. Samples of capsaicin were extracted from the pepper and diluted in a specific quantity of sugar water. The test relied on experienced taste testers to taste the solution. The sample would continue to be diluted until the testers were unable to detect the heat from the pepper.

For example, the capsaicin sample may be diluted 10 times, 100 times, and then 1,000 times. In the end, if the capsaicin needed to be diluted 8,000 times before it was undetectable, it would be rated 8,000 SHU.

The Scoville Scale ranks the heat intensity of peppers.

The original system was subjective because it was heavily dependent on the individuals performing the test, which led to inconsistent results.

Hot Pepper Showdown: Popular Peppers and Their Heat Levels

The Scoville Scale gives us a standardized way to measure the heat of chili peppers. With this understanding of pepper heat, let’s explore some of the most popular types of peppers and their unique characteristics.

Hottest Peppers

• Pepper X (2,693,000 SHU): Currently recognized as the world’s hottest pepper, Pepper X delivers brutal heat and an earthy flavor.
• Carolina Reaper (1,500,000 to 2,200,000 SHU): This pepper held the title of the world’s hottest pepper before Pepper X came on the scene. The first bite is known for being slightly sweet before the heat hits you hard.
• Habanero (100,000 to 300,000 SHU): These usually red and orange peppers are extremely hot and can be tough to work with. Though they provide remarkable heat and flavor, they are primarily used to create hot sauces. Always wear gloves and goggles when working with these peppers.

Medium Heat Peppers

• Cayenne (30,000 to 50,000 SHU): The cayenne pepper packs an admirable amount of heat. Cayenne pepper seasoning, derived from dried and ground peppers, is the main component of chili powder.
• Serrano (10,000 to 3,000 SHU): The Serrano pepper looks similar to a jalapeno, though it is usually smaller in size. Serranos pack a lot of heat that depends on the size of the pepper, with small peppers being hotter. Serrano peppers are used often in Mexican American cuisine and are good additions to salsa and guacamole.
• Jalapeno (2,500 to 5,000 SHU): Jalapenos are one of the most well-known hot peppers. Their maximum heat is around 10 thousand Scoville heat units.

Mild Peppers

• Poblano (1,000 to 2,000 SHU): Poblanos are often used in Mexican dishes like chile rellenos. They are known as ancho chiles when dried and are used in mole sauces.
• Banana Pepper (0 to 500 SHU): These peppers taste more tangy than hot. They are often pickled and used as a topping for sandwiches, pizzas, and salads.
• Bell (zero SHU): As mentioned earlier, bell peppers provide no heat and come in a variety of colors that make it the perfect vegetable for adding color, texture, and mild flavor to any meal, including tacos, stews, and pastas.

The Introduction of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography to the Scoville Scale

Eventually, science led to a more consistent way to rate hot peppers. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is now used to reduce the inconsistencies of relying on human taste testing. HPLC is used to determine the concentration of capsaicin in the pepper using parts per million (ppm). The concentration number is then multiplied by 16 to arrive at the SHU rating.

Ed Currie’s Pepper Empire and the Quest for the Hottest Pepper

Pepper breeders looking to set the hottest pepper record crossbreed pepper plants looking for the right characteristics to take the crown. This process is time-consuming and can take years for them to get consistent fruit from their plants.

Ed Currie is one of those breeders who devotes time to trying to grow the world’s hottest pepper, and he’s succeeded for more than a decade. In 2013, his Carolina Reaper pepper won the coveted title of World’s Hottest Pepper and held it for ten years. Then, Currie broke his own Guinness World Record record in August 2023 by replacing the Carolina Reaper with Pepper X, which comes in with an astounding 2.693 million SHU.

The Carolina Reaper was the hottest pepper until the creation of Pepper X.

While it may seem like a hot pepper record would be fairly straightforward, there is controversy that surrounds the title due to the following:

• Testing Methodologies and Validity: The accuracy of the SHU rating still depends on no errors being made during testing. The recent Pepper X rating has been called into question by some analysts and pepper growers.
• Economic and Commercial Interests: Some people have concern that the economic and commercial interests around the hottest pepper can lead to bias in the industry. Ed Currie has built a hot sauce company around his hot peppers called PuckerButt Pepper Company. While he openly shared his peppers and seeds from the Carolina Reaper, he has decided against sharing anything from Pepper X, so his company has the sole ability to grow and use it.
• Accessibility and Transparency: Limiting the ability of others to access pepper seeds stops others from being able to verify that the peppers really are as hot as claimed. It also can limit their ability to crossbreed with other hot peppers, thus giving them a crack at claiming the title for themselves.
• Scientific and Peer Review Standards: The standards of Guinness World Records are not always the same standard held by the scientific community. Some scientists believe that some of the hot pepper ratings may not hold up under scientific scrutiny.

These factors create a complex situation where financial interests, testing methods, and access to peppers can affect which pepper is declared the hottest. As a result, the true holder of the title remains debated, with growers and experts constantly challenging and verifying heat measurements.

Understanding Hot Pepper Flavor Profiles & Pairings

Incorporating hot peppers into your dishes can add a delightful kick of flavor. However, you’ll want to start by adding small amounts and tasting as you go. This can help you find the right balance of heat and flavor.

When adding spice, consider the dish’s overall taste profile. Some peppers have a bright, fresh taste, while others are smoky, fruity, or earthy. The key to choosing the right pepper for your dish is to match its flavor and heat with complementary ingredients, enhancing the overall taste and experience.

For example, complementing spicy peppers with ingredients that have cooling effects, like yogurt or lime, can create a harmonious blend. Or, you can use hot peppers in salsas, sauces, and marinades to enhance the depth of flavor. Knowing how to pair hot peppers with the right components can elevate your culinary creations to new heights.

Popular Dishes Featuring Hot Peppers

Hot peppers are integral to many beloved dishes around the world. Here are some popular foods that showcase the versatility and flavor of different peppers:

• Guacamole: Avocado, lime, onions, and serrano peppers come together to create a creamy, tangy dip with a kick. The bright, fresh taste of serrano peppers enhances the richness of the avocado while adding just the right amount of heat.
• Chili: A hearty mix of ground meat, beans, tomatoes, and a variety of hot peppers brings warmth and depth to this classic dish. Peppers like jalapenos and cayenne add both flavor and spice, making chili a comfort food favorite.
• Stuffed Peppers: Bell peppers filled with a savory mixture of meat, rice, and spices offer a comforting and flavorful meal. The mild flavor of bell peppers pairs well with the robust filling, making them a versatile dish that can be easily customized.
• Thai Curry: Coconut milk, vegetables (like cubed potato), meat, and Thai chili peppers come together to create a rich and spicy curry. The heat from the Thai chilies is balanced by the creamy coconut milk, resulting in a complex and satisfying dish.
• Spicy Noodles: Noodles mixed with vegetables and a spicy chili sauce make for a quick and flavorful dish. Hot peppers like Thai chilies or serranos add a punch of heat that elevates the overall flavor, making these noodles a go-to for spice lovers.
• Shrimp Creole: Shrimp, tomato sauce, hot pepper, onion, celery, and bell peppers served over rice deliver a taste of New Orleans with a spicy twist. The combination of hot peppers and aromatic vegetables creates a bold and flavorful sauce that complements the tender shrimp.

Chili is a popular dish made of tomatoes, ground beef, beans, and spice from hot peppers.

Hot peppers are not only about heat; their diverse flavors can transform simple dishes into extraordinary culinary experiences. For example, you can create a delicious appetizer by simply spreading hot pepper jelly on top of a block of cream cheese to eat with crackers. The creaminess of the cream cheese mixed with the sweetness of the jam and heat of the pepper creates a delightful balance of flavors and textures that can wow your guests with little effort.

By understanding and utilizing the unique characteristics of different peppers, you can enhance your cooking and explore new flavor dimensions.

Safety First When Cooking with Hot Peppers

Hot peppers can elevate dishes with their vibrant flavors and heat, but they also require careful handling to avoid unpleasant surprises. Understanding how to work with these fiery ingredients safely and effectively is the key to making the most of their culinary potential.

You don’t only need to worry about the heat from peppers when consuming them. The heat can easily be transferred to your utensils, kitchen equipment, hands, eyes, and other food. For example, if you chop a jalapeno on a cutting board and then dice a red onion on the same surface, some of the heat will transfer to the onion.

The capsaicin in peppers is hydrophobic, meaning it does not mix easily with water. So, giving your hands a quick rinse after touching a hot pepper isn’t likely to remove the oily substance from your skin. In fact, it may even cause the oil, and burning sensation, to spread further, which is why you’re told not to drink water when trying to cool your mouth after eating a hot pepper.

Survival Guide: Handling the Heat of an Overwhelming Pepper

Despite your best efforts, you might find yourself overwhelmed by the heat of a pepper. Here are some immediate relief tips for the burning sensation.

If You Get Pepper Oil on Your Skin:

• Vegetable Oil and Dish Detergent: Coat with vegetable oil first and then wash with dish detergent. The oil helps the capsaicin wash away.
• Baking Soda Paste: Make a paste from 1 tbsp baking soda and 1 tbsp water. Apply it to the exposed skin and then wash it away.
• Alcohol: Use high-proof alcohol or rubbing alcohol instead of water to remove the capsaicin from your hands.

If you happen to spread capsaicin to your eyes, flush your eyes with an eye wash for a few minutes. You can also use artificial tears to help soothe your eyes. While you can use cotton balls soaked in milk to soothe the skin around your eyes, it’s best not to use them in your eyes to avoid the spread of bacteria.

If You’re Struggling After Eating Hot Peppers:

• Dairy: Milk and dairy products contain casein, a protein that binds to capsaicin and helps wash it away, providing relief from the burning sensation.
• Sugary Drinks: Similar to how sugar water dilutes the capsaicin in the Scoville Test, some sugary drinks may help to ease the burn after eating a hot pepper.
• Starch: Bread and rice can act as sponges, absorbing the capsaicin oil and reducing the burn.
• What to Avoid: As mentioned earlier, water can spread the capsaicin oil around your mouth, increasing the burning sensation. Alcohol can intensify the sensation by opening up more pain receptors in your mouth.

Embrace the Heat and Spice Up Your Culinary Adventures

From inspiring extreme food challenges to kicking your favorite dish up a notch, hot peppers offer a world of vibrant flavors and exhilarating heat. Understanding the Scoville Scale and ratings of different peppers can help while you experiment with adding new flavors and heat as you cook. Just remember to keep the safety tips in mind as you work with peppers to avoid burning your skin or eyes.

If you’re eager to learn more about flavor profiles and expand your palate, hands-on experience at a culinary school can be invaluable. Contact us to discover how our programs can help you master the art of cooking with heat and elevate your culinary skills.

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This article was originally published on July 3, 2014, and has since been updated.